Exploring India’s journey of transforming primary education through systemic reforms, inclusive policies, and the pursuit of equitable and impactful learning for all children.

Have you ever imagined what it might be like for a nation to come out of the shadows of colonial rule and face the daunting challenge of teaching a large and diverse population of a new nation? This was India’s one of the many daunting challenges, in 1947. Looking at the Indian educational system overall, we can see that a number of bold measures have changed the terrain. These policies have covered a wide range of topics, including equity and quality as well as expanding access to education. There are still numerous obstacles to overcome despite significant progress in development and strategic effort. The purpose of this article is to explore the historical context, current status, and future directions of foundational learning and primary education in India.

When delving deep into the background, it becomes clear that the colonial education system in India was essentially created to fulfill the British government’s administrative requirements. Much of the population lacked access to primary education and was illiterate as a result of its exclusive focus on higher education in the name of popular education. According to the article 'Education System of British India: Purpose and Persuasion,’ this system was designed to produce a class of educated Indians who could assist in governance while perpetuating British cultural values. The independence of India was such an important event in history that it threw light on the fact, darkness and repression systematically brought in by the British rule, with a view to the need for radical restructuring in the educational realm. We further explore a few key initiatives undertaken by India since the landmark National Policy on Education nearly 56 years ago!

Milestones in Indian Educational Policies:
1968, India marked an important milestone in the advancement of national integration and cultural preservation by creating its first National Policy on Education, which aimed at free and compulsory education for all children up to the age of 14 and introduced the three-language formula, where students must learn their mother tongue, Hindi, and English. It called for specialized training and qualification for teachers.

The National Policy on Education 1986, amended in 1992, focused on removing disparities and promoting education for all, including marginalized communities. This led to the establishment of Navodaya Vidyalaya’s, expansion of scholarships and further acknowledged and stressed the need for nutritional and health education in schools and emphasized a child-centered approach in primary education.

Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA) was initiated in 2001 with the goal of providing all children aged 6 to 14 with access to high-quality education in order to achieve universal elementary education. SSA prioritized raising educational standards through community involvement and teacher training, reducing the dropout rate, and upgrading school facilities.

The Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act (RTE) 2009 was a revolutionary law that made education a fundamental right for children aged between 6 and 14. The Act mandated free and compulsory education. It laid down guidelines for school infrastructure, the qualifications of teachers, and the student-teacher ratio. The objective behind the Act was that each child should have access to education, regardless of their socio-economic background. To prepare kids for the twenty-first century, the NEP 2020 instituted a new 5+3+3+4 education system that places a strong emphasis on early childhood education, adaptability, creativity, and critical thinking. It also highlighted the importance of foundational literacy and numeracy (FLN)​​.

Impact of Educational Policies:
There have been structural changes in the education sector as a result of the implementation of these policies, especially in primary education. Enrollment rates in primary schools all over India have increased dramatically because of policies like RTE 2009. Before the implementation of the Right to Education (RTE) Act in India, the enrollment rate for children aged 6-14 was approximately 93.2% in 2008 (- School_2008-09.pdf). But it went up to 97.2% in 2018, which remained stable into 2019 (https://www.drishtiias.com/current-affairs-news-analysis-editorials/news-analysis/16- 01-2019/print/manual). Despite the challenges posed by the COVID-19 pandemic, the percentage of children enrolled in schools between the ages of 6 and 14 remained high at 95.4% in 2021.

During this period, the ASER 2021 Report highlighted a shift in enrollment from private to government schools due to the pandemic’s impact. (https://www.drishtiias.com/daily-news-analysis/covid-19-impact-on-learning-aser-2021) The educational gender disparity has also moved in the right direction. According to reports provided by UDISE+ and ASER, gender gaps have shrunk for both primary and upper-primary enrollment rates over the years. Schemes like the National Scheme of Incentives to Girls for Secondary Education (NSIGSE) and state-level initiatives like the Moovalur Ramamirtham Ammaiyar Scheme in Tamil Nadu assisted in increasing female enrollment and retention through provision of scholarships.

The mid-day meal scheme has also emerged as an additional incentive to improve school attendance and to reduce the drop-out rate of girls from economically disadvantaged families. Studies conducted by NIPCCD and IFPRI showed supportive evidence on its role in raising the figures of enrollment and retention. Programs such as Kendriya Vidyalayas (KVs) and Navodaya Vidyalayas (NVs) have made quality education more accessible to rural and underserved populations, helping bridge the rural-urban educational divide. Evaluations by NITI Aayog and annual reviews from the Ministry of Education highlight the effectiveness of these schools in providing equitable education opportunities. The introduction of the Right to Education (RTE) Act of 2009 has also positively impacted the infrastructure of school buildings, making it easier for children to learn. As UDISE+ data and ASER evaluations show, the RTE guidelines have improved even better conditions in terms of classrooms, restrooms, and playgrounds that directly affect the students and contribute towards an improvement in learning conditions.

While there has been tremendous progress in increasing enrollment rates, persistent challenges in learning outcomes remain. ASER 2022 findings indicate that only 20.5 percent of grade 3 students could read a grade 2-level text, and a mere 25.9 percent were able to at least do subtraction.
(https://asercentre.org/aser 2022/,
https://img.asercentre.org/docs/ASER%202022%20report%20pdfs/All%20India%20documents/aser2022nationalfindings.pdf).
This flatlining of outcomes over the past decade suggests that more fundamental issues are at play.

Curious case of TN:
Looking specifically at Tamil Nadu, it becomes clear that broad-based financial investment alone does not solve the FLN crisis. The state’s education budget has steadily increased over the years, reflecting a genuine commitment to improving the system. For instance, the education budget in Tamil Nadu in 2012 was approximately ₹14,552 crore. Based on estimates of student enrollment, the per-student expenditure in 2012 was around ₹12,000. By 2024-25, the budget has grown to approximately ₹44,042 crore for school education, marking a 23.1% increase compared to previous allocations, with around ₹12,500 crore allocated for primary education. Even after adjusting for inflation, the real terms budget has approximately increased by ₹9,700 crores, with a corresponding rise in the cost per child by about ₹10,000 over the last decade.

In sharp contrast, the gains in outcomes have been 3% after COVID and around 8% before COVID. Therefore, we have not seen correlative improvements in learning outcomes. This raises questions about the effectiveness of current spending strategies and suggests that increasing the budget alone may not address underlying issues in teaching quality and curriculum which affect learning outcomes. One of repeated explanations in literature and other states focuses on teacher shortages and high Teacher-Pupil Ratios (TPR). Yet, Tamil Nadu already meets national TPR norms, with a student-teacher ratio well within the recommended levels. The reported PTR in Tamil Nadu is 20.7, well below the recommended 30. Despite meeting and even exceeding norms on these parameters, learning outcomes continue to stagnate. This suggests that the mere presence of teachers is not enough to enhance educational outcomes. Over the last two decades, Tamil Nadu has introduced a series of ambitious policies and reforms, from Samacheer Kalvi scheme to expanding digital learning initiatives, all aimed at addressing both quality and equity in education. Yet, the results remain underwhelming. It is evident that the issue is not merely one of budget, teacher availability, or political action.

The real question, then, is ‘where is the gap?’ To find the answer, we must examine the system more holistically. In an era where mass literacy by age 8 needs to become a reality, a more radical shift is required. This is not just about isolated improvements in policy or infrastructure; it is about systemic transformation. We must look deeper into classroom practices, curriculum design, and the socio-economic context within which education is delivered. Classroom practices are essential because the quality of teacher-student interactions and the methodologies used directly impact students' comprehension and engagement levels. Curriculum design, on the other hand, must be relevant, inclusive, and aligned with foundational learning goals to ensure that what is taught truly meets students' developmental needs. The socio-economic context plays a crucial role, as factors such as family income, parental literacy, and community resources can either support or hinder a child’s learning journey. Without addressing these underlying structural issues, learning outcomes, we suspect, will continue to stagnate, regardless of how much is spent or how many teachers are hired. It is time to rethink education reform—not as a matter of isolated policies, but as a call for comprehensive systemic change.

Strategies for Systemic Reform:
Primary education reform and improvement can only be completely effective if the fundamental issues underpinning the entire educational system are addressed. The paper “Water of system change” (Kania, John, et al, FSG 2018) explains how organizations and individuals can bring about sustainable change in any system. It further points out 6 conditions of bringing a change in a system.

By addressing our most pressing challenges through the six conditions of systems change, we can build a robust and sustainable education system. This requires a comprehensive approach that drives radical reform and ushers in true transformation. The Ennum Ezhuthum Mission, launched by the Tamil Nadu government to bridge COVID-19-induced learning gaps, exemplifies such systemic reform, and serves as a beacon of hope for educational change. The following strategies are aligned with the principles of system change and draw from EE’s successful implementation:

Effective Policies and Practices: Policies and practices form the explicit conditions for systemic change. Ennum Ezhuthum (EE) focuses on equipping teachers with practical tools, such as workbooks tailored to three learning levels (Arumbu, Mottu, Malar), and structured training conducted every term for all teachers in Tamil Nadu. These efforts empower teachers to adopt modern pedagogical techniques, enabling classrooms to become spaces of creativity and engagement through storytelling, puppetry, and interactive activities. The foundation of education is in the classroom, and empowering teachers with modern pedagogical tools is essential. Such ongoing professional development is essential to meet the diverse needs of students. By embedding these practices as a core part of school life, the education system becomes responsive to all learners.
Equitable Resource Flows: Resource distribution must be equitable, focusing on underserved communities like rural and tribal areas. Adequate infrastructure, from safe classrooms to clean water and sanitation, is critical to providing every child with quality education. Ennum Ezhuthum classrooms are transformed with engaging teaching aids, colorful materials, and reading corners to support learning. By conducting a state-wide baseline survey, the program ensures that resources like appropriate level materials and teacher support are aligned with actual student needs, dismantling systemic inequities, and delivering a quality education to all.
Strong Relationships and Collaborations: Partnerships with local governments, educational institutions, and community organizations are key. Collaboration across these actors enhances the system by pooling resources, sharing experiences, and disseminating best practices. These relationships foster an ecosystem where educational interventions are more effective and tailored to community needs. Collaboration is at the heart of EE’s success, with partnerships among state administrators, schools, teachers, and parents. The Tamil Nadu Education Fellowship (TNEF) mobilizes young professionals to assist in monitoring and improving EE’s implementation, fostering accountability, and strengthening connections across stakeholders.
Inclusive Decision-Making and Power Dynamics: Empowering local communities and schools to make decisions ensures that the system remains responsive to local needs. Ennum Ezhuthum empowers teachers, students, and communities to take ownership of education. Its baseline surveys and frequent assessments (formative and summative) enable schools to adapt strategies to local needs and ensure inclusive decision-making. Engaging students in age-appropriate decision-making fosters inclusive solutions and builds agency. Shifting power to local actors ensures that decisions reflect diverse perspectives and community needs, leading to more grounded and impactful outcomes. Research supports the positive effects of including students in decision-making processes. Studies by Mitra (2004) and Fielding (2001) demonstrate that student participation fosters a sense of agency and ownership, leading to more inclusive and practical solutions. When students have a voice in shaping school policies, it strengthens their connection to the institution and enhances their leadership and problem-solving skills. Schools that promote shared decision-making also show improved engagement and more responsive approaches to student needs, ultimately creating a more democratic and impactful learning environment. By integrating students into the decision-making framework, schools encourage diverse perspectives and empower young people to contribute to meaningful, sustainable change within their communities.
Shifting Mental Models and Perceptions:
We must reshape how society views education—not as a finite process, but as a lifelong journey. EE’s integration with initiatives like Illam Thedi Kalvi extends the mission to community learning spaces, making education a collective societal effort and an infinite process. By promoting lifelong learning, we can create a system that supports continuous individual growth and collective societal advancement. Changing perceptions is crucial for long-term systemic change, encouraging an environment where education is valued at every stage of life.

The implementation of different educational policies has created a critical and creative realm for educational initiatives so far. But it is eminent to aspire for an effective and dynamic system to address diverse needs of a nation with differences. The Ennum Ezhuthum Mission demonstrates how a well-rounded approach, grounded in systemic principles, can tackle foundational issues, and inspire lasting change. Its emphasis on innovative teaching, equitable access, and community engagement offers a roadmap for reimagining education as a collective movement toward a brighter future for all children. Paying attention to these focal areas may bring into existence a much more equitable, and responsive system of education that truly addresses the genuine need of every child, thus equipping him/her to be the light bearers of the future.

References
1. National Policy on Education 1968:
(https://www.education.gov.in/sites/upload_files/mhrd/files/document-reports/NPE-1968.pdf)
2. National Policy on Education 1986 (revised in 1992):
(https://www.education.gov.in/sites/upload_files/mhrd/files/upload_document/npe.pdf)
3. Right to Free and Compulsory Education Act 2009:
(https://www.education.gov.in/sites/upload_files/mhrd/files/upload_document/rte.pdf)
4. National Education Policy 2020:
(https://www.education.gov.in/sites/upload_files/mhrd/files/NEP_Final_English.pdf)
5. ASER Reports: (https://asercentre.org/)
6. Kania, John, et al. & The Water of Systems Change. & FSG, 2018,
(https://www.fsg.org/resource/water_of_systems_change/)
7. Journey through India’s National Education Policy – Previous and the Present. (2021). Journal of Contemporary Issues in Business and Government,2021
8. Education System of British India: Purpose and Persuasion. (2023, September 17). Pakistan Today. Retrieved from
https://www.pakistantoday.com.pk/2023/09/17/education-system-of-british-india-purpose-and-persuasion/
9. RISE Vision Document 1 1. (n.d.). In RISE Insights 2 [Report].
https://riseprogramme.org/sites/default/files/2021 10/Indias_New_National_Education_Policy_Evidence_Challenges%20.pdf
10. Tamil Nadu Educational Budget https://financedept.tn.gov.in/budget/
11. Slipping Scores: How Education Knocked India Down in the Gender Gap Race. (2024, July 22). Business Standard. Retrieved from https://www.business-standard.com/education/news/slipping-scores-how-education-knocked-india-down-in-the-gender-gap-race-124072200321_1.html
12. https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/education/news/tamil-nadus-2024-budget-key-highlights-for-education-employment-and-infrastructure/articleshow/107816929.cms
13. https://educationforallinindia.com/age-specific-enrolment-ratio-aser-bridging-the-educational-divide/
14. https://prsindia.org/files/budget/budget_state/tamil-nadu/2019/State%20Budget%20Analysis%20-%20Tamil%20Nadu%202019-20.pdf
15. Mitra, D. L. (2004). The significance of students: Can increasing “Student Voice” in schools lead to gains in youth development? Teachers College Record the Voice of Scholarship in Education, 106(4), 651–688.
16. Fielding, M. (2001). Students as Radical Agents of Change. Journal of Educational Change, 2(2), 123–141.
17. https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/education/news/tamil-nadus-2024-budget-key-highlights-for-education-employment-and infrastructure/articleshow/107816929.cms